Economic Policy Essay Example for Free

Economic Policy Essay The essence of economic policy in the areas of urban housing, urban education, and urban transportation in the United States National Government is cored on the achievement of trade targets. Boosting its market efficiency and redistribution of supply and services grounded on public values are its primary interest (Feldstein, 1999). These economic policies make up a part of the body of agenda. These are of regulated policies prepared by the Federal Reserve System headed by the President of the United States of America and the legislative branch of government (Poole 1999). Body At the outset, economic policies are decisions. President Harry Truman was a decision maker of the land in his time (Mankiw, 1998). He mentioned of his need to find one-armed economist (Mankiw 1998). This is a manifestation that the concept of economic information is ambivalent (Mankiw, 1998). Decisions are taken initially based on individual principles of: trade offs in efficiency and equity, cost of something versus opportunity cost, marginal changes to a plan, and response of people to trade offs (Mankiw, 1998). Subsequently, societal interactions principles are considered based on: trade, markets, and governmental market policy (Mankiw, 1998). Finally, national economy is considered upon the principles of: production of goods and services, inflation, and tradeoff between inflation and unemployment (Mankiw, 1998). Three of the economic policies Of the United States of America National Government are in the areas of urban housing, urban education, and urban transportation. These are parts of the regulated competitive industries (Feldstein, 1999). The urban housing policy covers private and social benefits of homeownership (Haurin, 2003). Bush said, homeownership is the core American values of individuality, thrift, responsibility, and self-reliance (Haurin, 2003). It represents a pathway to pride and prosperity for many families, encourages values of responsibility and sacrifice, creates stability for neighborhoods and communities and generates economic growth that helps strengthen the entire nation (Haurin, 2003) Dietz and Haurin (2003) however showed that 25% more of spouses in owner-occupied households work or are employed. They also have to face up to inevitable tax revenues through mortgage deductions (Haurin, 2003). While the data presumes that the rest of the population in owner-occupied households does not work, this would mean, this group is above average income in the strata of society. The next issue then is to know why were governmental supports for homeownership projects in the scale of billions of dollars far exceeded expenditure on education (Haurin, 2003) when most homeowners have beyond workers financial capabilities. Were the determinants of families becoming homeowners covered by public policy (Haurin, 2003)? What economic public policy would justify lumping up of burdens on homeowners who are mere workers? What economic public policy would explain governmental support to boost the status of those who can afford a home? Would this public policy be in consistent with the targets of government as pronounced by the President? Enhancement of market efficiency is focused on: developing performances of industries by eliminating anticompetitive elements; providing consumer protection like making informed choices possible; and ensuring product cost would include externalities (Feldstein 1999). While redistribution of resources and services anchored on the policy of collecting higher taxes from those who earn more to provide for those who earn less (Feldstein 1999). These policies however are often influenced by international institutions like the International Monetary Fund or World Bank as well as political beliefs and the consequent policies of parties. Housing Policy for example is usually analyzed in economic industry, as a form of market. Market leads to efficient allocation through a complex process of matching supply and demand. This depends on competition, good information, the existence of multiple suppliers, and the existence of different multiple purchasers. At the beginnings of the 21st century the demographical changes in the United States shaped housing consumption (Masnick, 1990). This is marked though by the big problem in urban housing policy which became inadequate for the increased number of houses required to support increasing population (Masnick, 1990). The number of homeless people is constantly increasing annually (Masnick, 1990). Homelessness became a very complex problem (Masnick, 1990). This means, if there were not enough places for people to live, then there are really those who does not have any shelter of their own (Masnick, 1990). The housing market bloated beyond previous policy allocations (Masnick, 1990). As a consequence, those who were not originally included generally became the poorest constituents of society (Masnick, 1990). Subsequent to demographical changes is the alternative of the homeless to find shelter in temporary shanties on unoccupied lands (Dunleavy, 1981). This led to problems of land entitlements (Dunleavy, 1981). Squatters over time on squatted settlements built more stable houses (Dunleavy, 1981). Homelessness often led to development of individual characteristics such as alcoholism, psychiatric illness, unemployment, and marital breakdown (Dunleavy, 1981). The situation is further aggravated by the decrease in privately owned housing programs (Dunleavy, 1981). The local governmental systems then were obligated to absorb the market (Dunleavy, 1981). As it turned out, it is cheaper to buy houses than to rent (Dunleavy, 1989). Housing conditions in many cities which were particularly unsatisfactory being old and in poor condition were improved (Dunleavy, 1989). Looking back, series of policies since the late 1960s focused on the problems of deprivation in inner city areas (Dunleavy, 1989). Much of the concern was with the inner cities growth which was an attempt to produce an acceptable racial policy. Despite this, ethnic minorities have had no proportionate share of resources from policies for the inner cities (Dunleavy, 1989). However, local government economic policies today are more focused, and greatly in consistent with constant changes in the societal demographics regardless of ethnicity (Gabriel, 1990). Another consideration however must be made. This is because of: the limited availability of affordable rental units, mortgage finance, reduced housing and income assistance to very low income populations, problems of public housing, low income housing preservation, issues of equal opportunities in housing and housing finance market (Gabriel, 1990). Thus it could be said that housing trends are developed largely because of statistical increase in the number of people as well as their movements for relocation needs (Masnick, 1990). The individual household needs were then used as the foundation for the modification of housing policy. This is in addition to the different economic changes which were built-in, in the shifting demographic landscape (Masnick, 1990). In the area of education, improvements must be made in urban education policy (Hess, 2001). Urban districts are now facing hazardous problems in educating young people because of the lack of support from the local government (Hess, 2001). Many buildings in urban public schools are very old (Hess, 2001). Because of this, despite the big number of public schools in the United States, only one-fourth of the country’s students are attending the classes throughout districts (Hess, 2001). These are the main problems of the district official in the urban public area (Hess, 2001). They are unable to comply with the needs of their student population Hess, 2001). The rates of dropout students are also increasing (Hess, 2001). The urban education policy that would most likely fit implementation will be one that is site-based management throughout the district (Hess, 2001). This will allow officials and teachers at the school level to focus more on the specific needs of the students (Hess, 2001). Educational reform efforts and policy initiatives are now under way that shows commitment in improving the quality of education. It will include the proper raising of the student outcomes in the urban districts (Hess, 2001). A key issue though in urban education policy is the potential impact of market-based reforms (Hess, 2001). It will require more than the application of additional money in improving the quality of urban education (Hess, 2001). Allocations of school funds must be centered on the functions of instruction, administration, operations, and maintenance of almost the same statistical number of clients (Picus, 1996). Urban transportation policies must likewise be modified as societal demographics evolved (Norton, 1955-1970). Many states have still no urban freeways (Norton, 1955-1970). The ever increasing numbers of privately owned cars warrants improvement in policies (Norton, 1955-1970). Evolving Americans have to face up to transport problems in the cities (Norton, 1955-1970). The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 made a beginning at bringing highways to the city (Barranda, 2004). It set aside 25 percent of federal highway funds for urban projects and called for the designation of a National System of Interstate Highways† (Barranda, 2004). Although funding of these projects in the late 1940s and early 1950s was at more than two and a half times the prewar levels, total annual federal highway appropriations remained a half billion dollars or less (Barranda, 2004). The problem was that while government and industry both wanted highways, neither wanted to foot the bill (Barranda, 2004). Industry opposed excise taxes and tolls, while government opposed special bond issues and debt increases (Barranda, 2004). Divisions between pro-highway industries impeded their ability to lobby for an effective highway program (Barranda, 2004). However, eventually, the highway system that the government-industry partnership built was urban (Barranda, 2004). The unique degree of private participation in U. S. ransportation policymaking, and a federal policy treated all transportation problems as matters for highway engineers to solve (Barranda, 2004). In 1954, President Eisenhower suggested that metropolitan area congestion be solved by a grand plan for a properly articulated highway system (Larsen, 1995). In 1956, the House Committee on Public Works urged drastic steps, warning that otherwise traffic jams will soon bring down our growing economy (Larsen, 1995). The demise of the highways-only policy stemmed also from serious flaws in the policy itself (Larsen, 1995). At the end of World War II, the federal government began a significant intervention in urban transportation (Larsen, 1995). It was one which had increased to enormous proportions by 1960 (Larsen, 1995). But the funds were provided exclusively for the construction of urban highways (Larsen, 1995). Thus, urban transportation systems necessarily became imbalanced in favor of automotive transport (Larsen, 1995). Even the automotive transport systems were imbalance too (Larsen, 1995). Inequality was brought about by the ways in which federal dollars were allocated (Larsen, 1995). For example, while new freeways were providing automobiles unprecedented ease of access to cities, substantially, less federal allocations was provided for the downtown streets that had to bear the increased load (Larsen, 1995). No budgets were also allocated to provide the record numbers of cars for parking areas (Norton, 1955-1970). The US new urban transportation policy serves greater idea in resolving congestion problems in the cities (Barranda, 2004). Highway-Only Policy is one of those new integrated ideas (Barranda, 2004). Industry, not government, took the initiative in proposing that highways go downtown (Barranda, 2004). Eisenhowers coalition was composed of industries associated with the highway problem and interested in highway development, in the words of the Clay Committee report (Barranda, 2004). Although the Clay Committee conferred with the American Railway Association in drafting its report, this group was the only one of twenty-two trade organizations consulted which had an interest in rail transport (Barranda, 2004). Fourteen of the groups consulted were expressly concerned with roads (Barranda, 2004). But these industries were not simply developing a highway policy (Barranda, 2004). This is their foundation in creating a new national transportation policy (Barranda, 2004). However, many cities in the United States have recently built light-rail systems to combat congestion problems and at the same time avoid pollution (Barranda, 2004). To some critics oppose this policy is not fit because of the function in some small downtown areas (Barranda, 2004). The application of this light-rail however, after its almost universal domination in the 20th century is one of the greatest twists in transportation history. This application policy is an exclusive idea whose time appears to have come (Barranda, 2004). Local government now hopes that the light-rail will gain moderate transportation that will reduce the traffic problems around the country (Barranda, 2004). Fighting congestion was the main rationale for making American highways enter cities to a degree unmatched elsewhere in the world (Barranda, 2004). The consequences of the improved policies ultimately transformed U. S. urban transportation system (Barranda, 2004). Critics of the policy, in government, and outside of the government circles achieved broad bases of support by confronting this problem (Barranda, 2004). Expertise in urban transportation matters, which had been the exclusive domain of highway industry, emerged in other institutions, both governmental and private (Barranda, 2004). The road builders promises to end congestion, to keep downtowns vital visibly failed to pan out (Barranda, 2004). In brief, the vigor of the government-industry partnership that brought the freeways into the cities did not last, but is envisioned to trigger interest on alternative prospective partners (Barranda, 2004). Conclusion The basic portfolio principles of economics provides conceptual structures underlining maintenance of flexibility of economic policies whether it is in housing, education, or transport, or even in prices where speculators are left with the liberty to discern and give value to market stocks so long as it is within the economic parameters of the United States of American government, its Federal Reserve System, its legislature as well as its executive governmental administrators that works within the framework of Federal Democracy.

education in the past :: essays research papers

Education wasn’t an option for Romans and Greeks; it was both a tool and a necessity. Without education, neither of these cultures would have been what they were or remembered as they are today. Without education, neither of these cultures would have experienced the fame and success that they experienced during their individual time periods. About 200 BC, a Roman system of education developed which was different from the Greek tradition, but Romans borrowed some of the ancient Greek system of education. The Roman education system was based mainly on the study of Latin and Greek literature in order to produce effective speakers. School began each year on the 24th of March and there were three phases to a proper Roman Education: primary instruction, reading of literature (called grammar by the Romans), and formal schooling in rhetoric, but these three phases weren’t for everyone because school wasn’t free. For those that could afford to go to school, they had to first be educated at home. In early Roman days, a Roman boy’s education took place at home. If his father could read and write, he taught his son to do the same. The father instructed his son in Roman law, history, customs, and physical training, to prepare for war. Reverence for the gods, respect for law, obedience to authority, and truthfulne ss were the most important lessons to be taught. Girls were taught by their mothers. Girls learned to spin, weave, and sew. Once boys and girls, with their father’s permission to school, reached the age of 6 or 7, they were ready to begin the primary instruction part of the Roman education. In primary instruction, children studied reading, writing, and counting. They read scrolls and books. They were taught Roman numerals, and recited lessons they had memorized. At age 12 or 13, the boys of the upper classes attended â€Å"grammar† school, where they studied Latin, Greek, grammar, and literature. At age 16, some boys went on to study public speaking at the rhetoric school, which was the major element in education, to prepare for life as an orator or as an advocate in the law courts. In ancient Athens, the purpose of education was to produce citizens trained in the arts, to prepare citizens for both peace and war. Athenian schools were private, and required students to pay tuition. There were no state-funded schools at this time and no laws requiring children to receive education. education in the past :: essays research papers Education wasn’t an option for Romans and Greeks; it was both a tool and a necessity. Without education, neither of these cultures would have been what they were or remembered as they are today. Without education, neither of these cultures would have experienced the fame and success that they experienced during their individual time periods. About 200 BC, a Roman system of education developed which was different from the Greek tradition, but Romans borrowed some of the ancient Greek system of education. The Roman education system was based mainly on the study of Latin and Greek literature in order to produce effective speakers. School began each year on the 24th of March and there were three phases to a proper Roman Education: primary instruction, reading of literature (called grammar by the Romans), and formal schooling in rhetoric, but these three phases weren’t for everyone because school wasn’t free. For those that could afford to go to school, they had to first be educated at home. In early Roman days, a Roman boy’s education took place at home. If his father could read and write, he taught his son to do the same. The father instructed his son in Roman law, history, customs, and physical training, to prepare for war. Reverence for the gods, respect for law, obedience to authority, and truthfulne ss were the most important lessons to be taught. Girls were taught by their mothers. Girls learned to spin, weave, and sew. Once boys and girls, with their father’s permission to school, reached the age of 6 or 7, they were ready to begin the primary instruction part of the Roman education. In primary instruction, children studied reading, writing, and counting. They read scrolls and books. They were taught Roman numerals, and recited lessons they had memorized. At age 12 or 13, the boys of the upper classes attended â€Å"grammar† school, where they studied Latin, Greek, grammar, and literature. At age 16, some boys went on to study public speaking at the rhetoric school, which was the major element in education, to prepare for life as an orator or as an advocate in the law courts. In ancient Athens, the purpose of education was to produce citizens trained in the arts, to prepare citizens for both peace and war. Athenian schools were private, and required students to pay tuition. There were no state-funded schools at this time and no laws requiring children to receive education.

Modern-Day Discrimination in America

Tim Manyak 10/21/12 English ! 01 DISCRIMINATION IN AMERICA Although great strides have been made in the past century for awareness and avoidance of discrimination of all types, these practices remain prevalent to some extent. There has been a change in perception such that when the term discrimination is used that it refers primarily to racial bias against minorities. Racial discrimination towards any particular group is to be condemned. The prevailing stereotype may be that racial discrimination is mostly directed toward African Americans but there is ample evidence that it is also directed toward other groups.Therefore, it is important to raise awareness of these occurrences so that all may try to avoid such practices and activities. One group of people in particular that are discriminated against is Hispanics. Bias against Hispanics is well documented and it is difficult to separate whether this discrimination is on the basis of ethnic or racial grouping. Hispanics are discriminat ed against in several ways. One example of this discrimination is Arizona’s ratification of â€Å"The  Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act†.This is a law that requires all aliens older than fourteen be registered with the U. S. government, and be in possession of these documents at all times. The law also makes it illegal for any alien to be in Arizona without carrying these documents with them and, thus, subjects them to arrest. This law encourages racial profiling because it makes it legal for law enforcement officials to arrest any alien on suspicion of being an illegal immigrant. Another group of people that are discriminated against is Whites.In recent times, it would seem that people are selected or considered for something based more so on the fact that they are a minority. A substantial amount of racial bias is brought upon by affirmative action as well. A prime example of this would be the case Fisher vs. University of Texas. In this case, student Abigail Fisher felt she was denied admission to the University of Texas based on the fact that she was white, not on her academic performance. In 2003, the Supreme Court passed a law saying that race could play a role in the admissions process of universities, again encouraging racial profiling.Another example of racial discrimination against Whites would be the media bias in the Trayvon Martin case. Many news stations were quick to draw conclusions and pass judgment on George Zimmerman. In an attempt to make the attack seem racially motivated, some stations even played edited versions of the recorded 911 call made by Zimmerman minutes before the attack. Racial oppression of Whites occurs daily in America, and while on some occasions subtle, it continues diminish the lives of citizens all over the country.Another population of Americans that are heavily discriminated against are the Sikhs. Sikhs are a religious people, originally from South Asia, and very rich in culture an d tradition. Sikhs are often confused with Muslims, who are of a completely different religion and background. As a result of this confusion and the many conflicts between the U. S. and the Middle East, Sikhs have received a very considerable amount of racial discrimination from other people. An example of this discrimination took place in Oak Creek, Wisconsin.Wade Michael Page, a white supremacist, walked into a local Sikh temple and opened fire, killing six and injuring another four, before taking his own life with a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. No one is completely certain as to why Page committed this horrifying crime, but experts strongly imply that it was racially induced. Sikhs have faced the most brutal and direct type of discrimination due to the consistent conflict with the Middle East throughout the last decade.With the number of racially motivated crimes in America constantly increasing, it is also becoming increasingly more evident that there is much to be done to restore the fairness in America today. In order for true equality to occur in America, it is up to it’s citizens to overcome decades of ignorance and injustice. Racial discrimination exists against all races. Awareness of the problem will help continue the fight against discrimination. We must all do our part to be aware and prevent discrimination.

The Bandura Study Essay - 856 Words

The Bandura Study A) The Bandura study aimed to see if children copying aggression that they see in adults. In the study a male or female model was aggressive toward a bobo doll, the children were then observed to see if they imitated any behaviour shown by the model, or if they were/weren’t aggressive. There were also 2 control groups, one of which had seen a non aggressive male/female model and another group was observed after seeing no model. The results showed that the children were more aggressive when they had seen the aggressive model. Boys were, on average, more aggressive than girls. The gender of the model also had an affect on the behaviour of the children. Boys were more†¦show more content†¦This may have made the child more aggressive than it would usually have been which would show that child as being more aggressive and so affecting the results. There was also a big cultural change in the years following Banduras’ study. When this study took place there were very stereotypical views of men and women, this means that the children may have been reluctant to copy the behaviour of the aggressive female model, but were more likely to copy the behaviour of the aggressive male model, because society at the time expected more aggression from men. Girls may also have been less aggressive at that time because it was what was expected from society and vice versa with the boys. 2. Another problem with snapshot studies as they really go against the point of developmental psychology. They don’t look at how children develop and change over time, a snapshot just looks at one aspect over a very short period of time. Generalisations are then made of all children and young people, from the results of a few children of a certain age. In the Bandura study he used children of a nursery age and observed them for only 20mins; the results are then seen has having big implications on television and computer games. The results could have been like they were because children of that age are impressionable or that they feel that they have to copy adults more than older children,Show MoreRelatedTheories Of Albert Bandura889 Words   |  4 Pages The Theories of Albert Bandura I chose to research Albert Bandura. Albert is a contemporary psychologist specializing in development and educational psychology. A lot of his work revolves around the social learning theory. He is one of the most widely- cited psychologists of all time. He was born in Alberta, Canada in a small town of Mundare. He was the youngest of six children, two of his siblings died when they were young one from a hunting accidentRead MoreChildren s Innate Desire For Adults Based On Rewards883 Words   |  4 PagesThe desire of the participants to please or behave for adults based on rewards is another concern with Bandura et al. (1961) findings. According to Ferguson (2010), children’s innate desire to please their elders may have been a major influence in participant’s adopting aggressive conduct towards the Bobo Doll. Given the children were aware of the adult’s expectation to punch or push the Bobo Doll back, it was reported the children’s motivation to comply with this expectation was as a key influenceRead MoreEvaluation Of My Field Placement909 Words   |  4 Pagesteaching. Her name is Ms. Bandura. There are about 20 students in this classroom and are all of Hispanic and African American decent. In order for Ms. Bandura to teach her lessons and keep her students on track, she gives the students worksheets and packets. These materials work as study guides that the students complete as they learn and are able to use when it is time to study for their exam. Also, by having a set of questions or vocab words, these study guides guide Ms. Bandura through the lessonsRead MoreThe Role Of Observation Of Psychological Research1508 Words   |  7 Pagesevaluate the usefulness of observational studies in psychological research this assignment will first briefly explain the role of observation. It will proceed by drawing from an example of observational studies conducted by Bandura et al (1963) as cited in Oates (2014), in order to illuminate the value of observation. Additionally it will explore any implications that may arise by adopting the method of observation. It will then move forward to the ethnographic study conducted by Corsaro (2006), whichRead MoreEvaluation of a Social Psychological Theory of Aggression Essay733 Words   |  3 PagesEvaluation of a Social Psychological Theory of Aggression One of the most influential approaches to aggression is the social learning theory approach, put forward by Albert Bandura. According to this approach, most behaviour including aggressive behaviour is learned. Albert Bandura believed that aggression is learned through a process called behaviour modelling. He argued that individuals, especially children learn aggressive responses from observing others, either personalityRead MoreStatistical Report on the Effects of Self-Efficacy on Depression1333 Words   |  6 Pagesstudied extensively since Albert Bandura first published his theory in 1977. In social situations, individuals have varying perceptions of their ability to successfully interact with others.(Bandura 1977) In other words, their self-efficacy beliefs reflect their level of social confidence (Bandura, 1977). The possession of strong self-efficacy beliefs has been related to positive outcomes in academic achievement, career choice and also to reduce levels of depression (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy is definedRead MoreWomen s Behavior Or Aggressiveness Towards The Bobo Doll Experiment995 Words   |  4 Pagesdefined criteria so that one has to rely on others to find out how one is doing† (Bandura). In the 1960s and 1970s, being a psychologist was difficult. In order to prove a theory, you would have to conduct different experiments that would lead to a conclus ion that was still criticized by society. An example, of a psychologist that had difficulty with his experiment is Albert Bandura. In the Bobo Doll Experiment, Albert Bandura used different methods, on groups of kids of different ages and genders. ToRead MoreDr. Bandura s Hypothesis921 Words   |  4 Pageswas Dr. Bandura s hypothesis? Bandura’s hypothesis was â€Å"that children can learn about aggressive behaviors by observing the action of others† (Durkin, 1995). By watching the video about Dr. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, it is clear that his hypothesis was that children that sees aggressive behavior tends to be aggressive, while children that do not see aggressive behavior will probably not show an aggressive behavior (Research Methods Presentation). 2) What type of research study did Dr. BanduraRead MoreEssay on The Theories of Albert Bandura804 Words   |  4 PagesThe Theories of Albert Bandura Albert Bandura was influenced by behaviorism while at the University of Iowa studying for his PhD in the early 1950s, he developed his own theories called reciprocal determinism, he believed that not only does the environment influence behavior, but behavior influences the environment, or to put it in his own words ’the world and a persons behavior cause each other‘. Bandura is often considered a ‘father’ of the cognitive movement,Read MoreThe Theory Of Behaviorism Operant Conditioning993 Words   |  4 PagesConditioning. He would rather study observable behavior rather than internal mental events. He felt that was the best way to see how one may react to a particular stimuli and how one would handle the situation. Skinner believed that if a behavior is reinforced the behavior will continue. This had a two sided effect. If the bad behavior was reinforced the bad behavior would continue. Such as the good behavior, if it is reinforced and rewarded, the good behavior will continue. Albert Bandura is another theorist